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Publication Open Access Illustrated descriptions of epidermal microcharacters of some festucoid grasses: Including guidelines to the identification of cuticular and epidermal fragments separated from herbivore faeces(Lincoln College., 1976) Rogerson, Susan J.Epidermal and cuticular microcharacters are described and illustrated for some 15 grass species found in South Island hill and high country pastures. Sections of the epidermis and cuticle were obtained from both leaf and culm surfaces by acid maceration and manual separation, then stained and permanently mounted. Line drawings are presented for each species with accompanying descriptions. Guidelines are suggested for the identification of epidermal and cuticular fragments separated from herbivore faeces. It is recommended that the guidelines be used in conjunction with both illustrations and descriptions. Photomicrographs were also prepared from epidermal and cuticular preparations. Prints from negatives are available upon request.Publication Open Access Proceedings of the 1989 Hill and High Country Seminar(New Zealand Mountain Lands Institute, Lincoln University, 1989-12) Robertson, B.TThe proceedings include the full text of the following papers: Gullen, D - Crown land reform; Corry, J C - Legal rights of pastoral lessees; Joseph. J L - Legal rights of pastoral lessees; Bamford, J - Legal rights of pastoral lessees, a commentary; Ensor, H R - Legal rights of pastoral lessees, a commentary; Stewart, K M - Categorisation of pastoral land; Holloway, J S - Categorisation of pastoral land; Garden, P - Categorisation of pastoral land; Mouat, K - Categorisation of pastoral land, a commentary; Kerr, I G C - What are they doing about rabbits? Lucas, G - What are they doing about rabbits? A commentary; Hensley, G - Rural fire review; Devine, W - Protected areas legislation review; O'Connor, K F - The conservation of culture and nature in New Zealand mountains; Bullock, D W - Gene manipulation; Patterson, R G & Patterson H M - A practical approach to breeding footrot resistant merinos; Hutchinson, R T - Canada geese - current management scene; Hide, R P - Cleaning up the game of Canada goose management; Brown, R - Changing to merinos; Richardson, D M - Changing to merinosPublication Open Access Proceedings of the 1981 Hill and High Country Seminar, Lincoln College, 9-10 July, 1981(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1982) Robertson, B. T.The proceedings of the 1981 Hill and High Country Seminar includes the full text of the following papers: Methods to treat and Control Footrot – A. S. Familton, Can We Eradicate Footrot? – A. D. Ross, Crops for Cold Climates – R. N. Rowe, Climate Data for Agriculture - R.W. Heine, Where are we with Rabbit Control? J. Bell and J.M. WilliamsPublication Open Access A review of rentals for pastoral leases(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1979) Kerr, I. G. C.; Frizzell, Ralph; Ross, B. J.This Institute has continued to investigate aspects of management of tussock grass lands and mountain lands that were judged to be important for these lands or for their uses. In the course of our monitoring of pastoral production changes during the 1960s and early 1970s, some evidence emerged that suggested marked differences among different classes of runs in response in pastoral output to technological development. Such differences would in turn suggest fundamental differences in economic rent of pastoral lands.Publication Open Access The Snow of August 1973(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1976) Hughes, J. G.The heavy snowfall which occurred in Canterbury and North Otago from 5 to 7 August 1973 caused widespread and costly damage to electric power and telephone lines and buildings and disrupted access. Snow, and the heavy rain which fell during the period led to the death of at least 133,000 sheep and 4,100 cattle. Rescue and relief operations were expensive. The State alone paid out $139,366 to farmers, helicopter and bulldozer operators, and cartage contractors for livestock rescue and the provision of emergency feed. A distinctive feature of the snow was that it was at its deepest along the foothills and on the adjoining plains. Depths up to 130 cm (51 in.) were reported, and over five times this in drifts. This publication consists of a meteorological statement on the event followed by reports from the many bodies concerned with repairing communications or rescuing stock and stranded motorists. It also contains within these reports, and the reports of several post-event meetings, many suggestions for reducing damage and improving rescue efficiency in future. This is the principal value the Institute sees in compiling this document.Publication Open Access Proceedings of the 1979 Hill and High Country Seminar, Lincoln College, 2-4 July 1979(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1979-12) Robertson, B. T.The proceedings of the 1979 Hill and High Country Seminar includes the full text of the following papers: Rent - I. G. C. Kerr, Rentals for pastoral leases; R. Frizzell, Some problems; New Horizons - G. A. Joll, Opportunities for commercial recreation; J. G. Newson, New livestock opportunities; P. J. Morrissey, Commentary; A. H. Nordmeyer, A major forestry option; Dr. W. A. N. Brown, Commentary; Managing the Hills - Dr. J.A. Hayward, Understanding the hills; M. Douglass, Regional resource planning – the process of selecting objectives; Problem-solving research- Dr. D. Scott, Pastures; Dr. A. J. Allison, Animals; Dr. J. G. H. White, Crops; J. S. Dunn, Machines; J. R. Cocks, Commentary; Profitability - N. W. Taylor, G. T. Mars, Economics of hill and high country production; I. G. C. Kerr, Production and performance in the high country; A. R. Sykes, Achieving better stock performance; K. F. O’Connor, A forward look.Publication Open Access Electric fencing(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1968) Weston, L. H.Since 1958, when details of electrified permanent fencing tried by Massey College became known, hundreds of miles of electric subdivision fence have been erected. The key to its popularity has been the great saving in costs of materials, transport and labour. It is also easier to erect, so can be built by farm labour instead of waiting for contract fencers. This reduces the cost still further. The success of electric fencing depends on (a) Careful insulation of electrified wires. (b) A continuous earth wire running the length of the fence and connected to the earth terminal of the electric fence unit. (c) Removal of stray wires and excessive green vegetation from the fence lines. In practice, thistles, grass, clover, secondary growth and tussocks gradually reach the live wires and reduce the efficiency of the fence, particularly in wet or misty weather. Sometimes insulators slip, break or become coated with dirt, so that again electric leakage becomes serious. Furthermore the "wind-charger" units available for inaccessible places sometimes fail to keep the battery fully charged. Consequently a number of electric fences have become ineffective. On the other hand where a "mains" operated unit has been used, and the fence checked regularly, electric subdivision fences have been very effective. In fact, once the stock learn to respect an electric fence over a period of months, there is no need to worry if it happens to be off for some days. Nevertheless, there are some ineffective electric fences, so many people hesitate to regard them as permanent, and suggest that they should be reinforced or replaced by standard fences when finance becomes available. This makes it clear that there are definite requirements to be met, and limits to its use as permanent fencing.Publication Open Access Distribution of sweet brier, broom and ragwort on Molesworth Station : a report to the Department of Lands and Survey(Lincoln College. Plant Science Department., 1973) Stevens, E. J.; Hughes, J. G.This report is based on a survey of distribution of sweet brier, broom and ragwort on the property made by Mr Stevens during the period November 1972 to February 1973. Most of the property, including the principal weed-infested areas, was reconnoitred on horseback or on foot. The Clarence River was also inspected from the air to enable the upper altitudinal limits of broom to be plotted. Country west of the Wairau River was viewed from the valley road. The Severn, Saxton and Cat River catchments were not inspected. Mr Chisholm and the head stockman, Mr D. Reid, gave information about the comparatively few weeds in these areas. The relative abundance of weeds in a region was ranked on a five-class scale: dominant, abundant, frequent, occasional or rare. In practice, although a weed such as sweet brier was dominant on some favoured sites, in no zone was any weed mapped as more than abundant. The word "locally" was used to qualify abundance where necessary. For example "locally frequent" indicates dumpiness rather than dispersed distribution. The overall scale is illustrated in Plates 1-4.Publication Open Access Watershed management in New Zealand : status and research needs(Lincoln College. Plant Science Department., 1965) Dils, Robert E.Nature has endowed New Zealand with unique geologic, climatic, and biotic conditions. Her volcanic cones and majestic Southern Alps and her verdant plains and rolling hills provide a landscape as rugged and beautiful as will be found anywhere. Her indigenous fauna and flora are often quite different from that of the rest of the world and consequently have been of widespread interest to biologists everywhere. Her geologic youth and structure and her island climate, in combination with the biological resources, have made a land which is ecologically on edge. These natural endowments along with the manner in which she has utilized her land, have given New Zealand some of the most spectacular and rapid erosion to be found. It is quite evident that geologic and climatic conditions combine to give unusually high rates of natural erosion. Present topographic features indicate the past occurrence of large-scale flooding as well. Prior to the arrival of the Maori, it is very likely that most of the land mass of New Zealand below present bush lines was covered with indigenous bush or forest. Forest fires of a catastrophic nature undoubtedly occurred as a result of lightning, and volcanic eruptions. The exposed soils left by these catastrophes contributed to natural deterioration. While vast areas of forest cover were destroyed, they probably were healed by nature with forest or with grass or herbaceous cover. Further, it is probable that large areas in the mountains were, as they are now, subject to landslides and slipping due to earthquakes and excessive local rainfall. Again, the healing process was probably rapid in most of such exposed areas.Publication Open Access Recommendations for the future use of the Waimakariri catchment(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1967) Hayward, John A.This report has been prepared by the staff of the Institute because of the vital importance of the Waimakariri Catchment. It attempts to collect under one cover all the relevant information from known sources and to make a series of recommendations in the light of this assembled knowledge. These recommendations are that a modification of traditional land use is desirable and that it can only be achieved with justice if adequate compensation is offered to the legal occupiers of the upper catchment. The survey also reveals a very large field of ignorance about the condition and trend of the catchment and about the economics of changes in land use. It recommends that investigation of these fields be undertaken.Publication Open Access A computer program for capture-recapture studies of animal populations ; a Fortran listing for the stochastic model of G. M. Jolly(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1971) White, E. G.White (1971) briefly describes the versatility of a Fortran computer program which analyses capture-recapture data from animal populations, using the stochastic model of G. M. Jolly (1965) . The listing and a fuller description are now given. The program is applicable to studies in which marked animals are individually recognisable, although White (1971) suggests two ways in which to adapt data from studies in which animals are not individually recognisable. The program is in five sections which store all the capture-recapture records and then organise any given selections of these data into trellis tables and the tables of derived population estimates. Data can be used from studies with or without intermediate recapture samples (described by Jolly (1965)), and any selection of consecutive data can be analysed separately for any subpopulation. To permit such a selection, the migration of marked animals (as well as unmarked) between sub-populations is accounted for, both in space and time, but in such applications there should be no repeated to-and-fro migration since a basic assumption of Jolly's model is that all emigration is permanent. Certain restrictions can be placed upon the analysis of data and animals can be added to or withdrawn from the population during a study. The program is written in Fortran IV and was compiled and tested on an 8K IBM 1130 computer using the IBM 1130 Monitor Fortran.Publication Open Access The Waimakariri catchment; a study of some aspects of the present systems of land use, with recommendations for the future(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1967) Hayward, John A.1. The Waimakariri River has been a constant threat to the Christchurch area. From the earliest days of settlement, river works have been carried out to control flooding, and the present value of these works now exceeds five million pounds. However, only in more recent times has it been suggested that the condition of the upper catchment could be an important factor in flood control. 2. This study describes the upper catchment, examines its use, and potential, and makes recommendations for future use and research. 3. The area is described as a high-altitude, mountain catchment with predominantly steep, unstable slopes, and shallow, infertile, and erodible soils. The vegetation has been drastically modified in pre-European and European times and consequently half the catchment is in a severely to extremely eroded condition. 4. In recent years the condition of some plant communities has improved but others, particularly above about 3,000 feet, continue to deteriorate. The deterioration is greatest on those areas grazed by both domestic and noxious animals. 5. These are areas of high precipitation with a considerable potential for water conservation and detention. However this potential will not be realised under continued grazing. This report therefore recommends that all stock should be excluded from high altitude land. 6. However, as most of the present occupiers have legal rights to the pastureage of this land it is recommended that they be adequately compensated for its loss. Compensation should be based on the productive value of the retired land, and reinvested in the remainder of the property. 7. Despite a reduction in the grazable area, agricultural production could be increased three-fold, an increase which would be consistent with the water and soil conservation requirements of the catchment as a whole. 8. Increased agricultural productivity will not be possible without major changes in the present system of farming. The feasibility and economics of the necessary changes are discussed, and twelve recommendations are made for their adoption. 9. As many decisions on future use have been based on rather inadequate data, six recommendations are made for further research and investigation. Results from the recommended studies would be of benefit to future planning. 10. The recommendations for future land use would be best implemented through the North Canterbury Catchment Board’s Run Plans. The estimated cost of £370,000 would be spread over a number of years as the proposals were progressively incorporated in future run plans.Publication Open Access Electric fencing(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1963) Weston, L. H.Since 1958, when details of electrified permanent fencing tried by Massey College became known, hundreds of miles of electric subdivision fence have been erected. The key to its popularity was the great saving in costs of materials, transport and labour. It was also easier to erect, so it became possible for farm labour to construct electric fences instead of waiting for contract fencers. This reduced the amount of cash to be raised still further. Six manufacturers are selling electric fence equipment, and all have well-illustrated leaflets or booklets giving details of erection. In addition, many farmers, encouraged by Massey College, have kept costs very low by using standard bobbin insulators (Type 436) or short pieces of polythene water-pipe as insulators. The success of electric fencing depends on: (a) Careful insulation of electrified wires. (b) A continuous earth-wire running the length of the fence and connected to the earth terminal of the electric fence unit. (c) Removal of stray wires and excessive green vegetation from the fenceline. In practice thistles, grass, clover, secondary growth and tussocks gradually reach the live wires and reduce the efficiency of the fence, particularly in wet or misty weather. Sometimes insulators slip, break or become coated with dirt, so that again electric leakage becomes serious. Further, the 'wind-charger’ units available for inaccessible places sometimes fail to keep the battery fully charged. Consequently a number of electric fences have become ineffective. On the other hand a 'mains' operated unit has been used, and the fence has been checked regularly, electric subdivision fences have been very effective. In fact once the stock learn to respect an electric fence over a period of months, they do not worry it if it happens to be off for some days. Nevertheless, ineffective electric fences are so prevalent that many people hesitate to regard them as permanent, and suggest that they should be reinforced or replaced by standard fences when finance becomes available. This makes it clear that there are definite requirements to be met and limits to its use as permanent fencing.Publication Open Access Some impressions of a visit to parts of the South Island, June 1962(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1963) Costin, A. B.In June, 1962, at the invitation of the Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute of New Zealand, I inspected parts of the South Island (Appendix 1), to make comparisons between high mountain areas of Australia and tussock grassland and mountain areas of New Zealand (Appendix 2) and thereby gain a clearer understanding of New Zealand problems. The inspections were arranged and conducted by the Director of the Institute, Mr L. W. McCaskill, usually in conjunction with other workers, runholders and administrators concerned with high country problems. Despite the necessarily selective nature of the visit, both as regards places and people, a reasonable cross-section of country, problems and opinions was encountered which, with recollections of an earlier visit in 1951, permitted some impressions to be formed. What is the solution to the deteriorated condition of New Zealand tussock grasslands and mountain lands, as manifest in many ways such as soil erosion, stream aggradation, flooding, weed and pest invasion, and declining stock-carrying capacity? Since there is a common denominator to most of these areas-tussock grassland-universal solution is sometimes expected. But the environment is so diverse, especially as regards topography, altitude and associated climate that no one solution can be possible and the illusion is best forgotten. There are many problems and each may require a separate solution. There is little point is discussing the many day-to-day problems with which New Zealand workers are already fully familiar, such as the need for cheaper effective fencing, and feral animal and weed control. The basic question is the determination of correct land use and this is the issue which is considered here.Publication Open Access High-country fencing(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1962) Hughes, J. G.Fencing is now recognised as a major aid towards improved management of runs. With costs of both materials and labour high and rising, it is essential that all fences erected be well planned, and well constructed of the best but most economical materials for the site. This booklet will discuss materials, siting and construction of fences on hill and high country. The aim should be to build fences that are stock proof, low in maintenance, and constructed at reasonable cost with longest life.Publication Open Access High country river processes : a technical discussion of results from research on the Kowai River system, Springfield, Canterbury(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1981) Blakely, R. J.; Marden, M.; Ackroyd, PeterA sub-catchment (Torlesse Stream) of the Kowai River, Canterbury, has been the site of an interdisciplinary study of the relationships between erosion and stream sedimentation (Hayward 1975). It was logical to extend the stream sediment investigation of that study (Hayward 1978) into the Kowai system proper in order to establish changes in the nature and distribution of the stream sediments with distance downstream. The sediment sampling study, comprising Part I of Paper A in this volume, analyses the changes in size, distribution, form and rock type of the river gravels from ahead water mountain stream to the wide braided river beds of the middle reaches of the Kowai River. Part 2 of Paper A discusses the possible implications for the management that these sediment studies have for this and other similar river systems. It is believed that if thought necessary it is possible to design a river training programme to guide the river towards a more manageable pattern. Paper B of this volume compares the results of the present river gravel survey with those from a sedimentological analysis of fluvio-glacial outwash gravels deposited several thousand years ago within the lower reaches of the Kowai system. This comparative study is used to indicate differences in the hydrologic environment prevailing at their respective times of deposition, and aids in our understanding of the processes at work in hill and high country rivers today. Both Papers A and B relate to the Kowai River system, but the authors wish to emphasise that the findings from these studies are believed to have application to other similar gravel bed river systems.Publication Open Access Thyme in Central Otago : a summary of studies by biology students at Dunstan High School, Alexandra(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute Lincoln College ., 1979) Wilkinson, E. L.; Dann, G. M.; Smith, G. J. S.Thymus vulgarais L. (Labiatae) is a plant which has become an increasingly prominent member of the adventive flora of Central Otago since its introduction into the area last century. Its distribution is confined to the valleys of the Clutha, Kawarau and Mauherikia Rivers. Seed dispersal methods were investigated, with the role of animals, wind and mechanical methods being considered. From the studies so far, it would seem that the latter two are the most important methods of dispersal open to the plant. Germination studies revealed that acidity, cold treatment of seed prior to planting, and the exposure of seed to light on sowing, enhanced the germination rate. The effects of thyme oil on germination was also tested. Thyme appears to prefer a well-drained soil, and a relatively sheltered, well-lit, warm situation. The success of the plant in arid areas may be attributable to the reduction in competition from grasses and other herbs. Thyme can be controlled either mechanically or chemically; its future in Central Otago, though, may lie in its use as a source of honey, its harvest as a culinary herb, and its value as an object of study.Publication Open Access Maximizing fine wool income(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute., 1988) Cottle, David J.; Jopp, RobertWool producers considering management options need to balance the benefits against costs. Options developed by scientists may realise extra returns but may also involve extra costs. Their adoption by farmers will depend on attitudes towards the risk of spending more to earn more. With high interest rates, the cost/benefit of an option needs to be clear cut. Few runholders record the amount of wool produced per class (and breed) of sheep, so often decisions about stock management are made without good objective data (Kerr and Lefever, 1983). Hill and high country farmers in the South Island receive 40-50 percent and 60-70 percent respectively of their gross income from wool (Kerr and Lefever, 1983). The most numerous sheep breeds are Merinos (44-50 percent) and Halfbreds (33-44 percent). The wool production of a flock depends mainly on its genetic worth or estimated breeding value (EBV), the feed it consumes and its health status. The income derived from this wool depends on the quantity and quality of the wool produced, its preparation and marketing. This paper outlines some basic principles in all these areas. The genetic worth of a breeding flock is determined equally by the EBV of rams and ewes used. In a flock breeding its own rams (e.g. studs) the genetic improvement in the flock is heavily influenced by ram quality, as about 80 percent of the total selection pressure (differential) is achieved from ram selection. Similarly in a commercial flock, genetic improvement is largely influenced by the choice of sire source, rather than flock ewe selection. This paper deals with ram management and breeding and selection policies, because they are critical to genetic progress. Most wool returns are obtained from ewes and/or wethers. Stock nutrition determines how much of the genetic potential for wool production is achieved. Thus pasture development, grazing management and feed planning for different classes of stock are also discussed. Flock health management and wool preparation are briefly discussed.Publication Open Access High country production surveys : 1965/67, 1971/73, 1976/78(Lincoln College. Plant Science Department., 1979-12) Kerr, I. G. C.; Lefever, K. R.; Costello, E. J.This publication records in some detail the results of a series of surveys carried out by the Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute, to assess pastoral production in the high country of the South Island. Surveys were carried out for the years 1965/66, 1966/67, 1971/72, 1972/73, 1976/77 and 1977/78. The results presented here are averages for each of the two year periods, 1965/67, 1971/73 and 1976/78. The results of the study are presented in two parts: a) A tabulation of the aggregate pastoral production, livestock performance and related data at each survey period for 288 runs which were common to all six surveys. These results are presented in part A. b) A similar tabulation of data for the 300 runs which were included in the 1976/78 survey. These results are presented in part B. All the information recorded in earlier surveys (1965 /67 and 1971 /72) has, where possible, been verified and related to that of the most recent survey (1976/78). The survey data were obtained during interviews with runholders. A summary of the results of this survey has been published in the T.G.M.L.I. Re. view (Number 38 1979) and in the proceedings of the T.G.M.L.I. Hill and High Country Seminar held at Lincoln College in July 1979. It is anticipated that the more detailed results contained in this publication will be of most interest to those persons with a close interest in high country pastoral production. Each contributing runholder has been sent a summary analysis of data for the property, together with a similar summary for the region in which the run is located. At their request, the implications of results of this analysis of data for the property have been discussed with the runholders concerned. Using information from this survey, the authors have determined the frequency of distribution of many of the production factors relevant to high country farming. And are in the process of determining the appropriate input-output relationships. Arising from this survey a close study of variations in liveweight of sheep between runs and between seasons and the relationship between liveweight and livestock performance is being planned.Publication Open Access The Castle Hill buttercup (Ranunculus paucifolius) : a story of preservation(Lincoln College. Tussock Grasslands & Mountain Lands Institute., 1982) McCaskill, L. W.CASTLE HILL (920m) is a tor-studded limestone hill in the south-west corner of the intermontane basin variously known as the Broken River, Castle Hill or Trelissick basin. It gave its name to the Castle Hill Station on the Christchurch Arthur's Pass highway, a sheep run which begins near Lake Lyndon and was taken up by Porter Bros. in June 1858. Originally of 25,000 acres, 5,000 acres were added in February 1859 and another 5,000 in March 1861. In October 1864 the Porters sold Castle Hill to John and Charles Enys who had come to Canterbury from Cornwall in 1861. John was a keen amateur scientist, a keen collector of stamps and autographs and a generous giver of all kinds of natural history specimens to the Canterbury Museum. He was specially interested in butterflies and, as a keen angler, did much to introduce trout to the Waimakariri basin. He discovered marine fossils in the local limestones and bought the freehold so that they could be preserved. He had to sell Castle Hill in 1890 when he returned to England to look after the old home where he died in 1912. The first reference to the Castle Hill buttercup is in the second part of the "Handbook of the New Zealand Flora" 1867 when in his circumscription of Ranunculus chordorhizos J. D. Hooker refers to a plant occurring - "Waimakariri district, on limestone-gravel."