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This collection contains items published by Lincoln University researchers where we do not have the full text or cannot make it open access. Instead we provide the bibliographic data (title, author, date etc), the abstract, and where relevant a link to the publisher's site.
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Item Restricted MicroRNA-432 inhibits milk fat synthesis by targeting SCD and LPL in ovine mammary epithelial cells(Royal Society of Chemistry, 2021) Hao, Z; Luo, Y; Wang, J; Hickford, Jonathan; Zhou, Huitong; Hu, J; Liu, X; Li, S; Shen, J; Ke, N; Liang, W; Huang, ZThe microRNA (miR)-432 is differentially expressed in the mammary gland of two breeds of lactating sheep with different milk production traits, and between the non-lactating and peak-lactation periods, but there have been no reports describing the molecular mechanisms involved. In this study, the effect of miR-432 on the proliferation of ovine mammary epithelial cells (OMECs) and the target genes of miR-432 were investigated. The effects of miR-432 on the expression of the target genes and the content of triglycerides in the OMECs were also analyzed. Transfection with a miR-432 mimic was found using CCK8 and Edu assays, to inhibit the viability of OMECs and reduce the number of proliferated OMECs. In contrast, a miR-432 inhibitor had the opposite effect to the miR-432 mimic, and together these results suggest that miR-432 inhibits the proliferation of OMECs. A dual luciferase assay revealed that the genes for stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) are targeted by miR-432. The transfection of miR-432 mimic into OMECs resulted in decreases in the expression of SCD and LPL, and three other milk fat synthesis marker genes; FABP4, LPIN1 and ACACA. The mimic also decreased the content of triglycerides. The miR-432 inhibitor had the opposite effect to the mimic on the expression of these genes and the level of triglycerides. This is the first study to reveal the biological mechanisms by which miR-432 inhibits milk fat synthesis in sheep.Item Restricted Maternal high fat diet-induced obesity modifies histone binding and expression of oxtr in offspring hippocampus in a sex-specific manner(Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), 2019-01) Glendining, KA; Jasoni, CLMaternal obesity during pregnancy increases risk for neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Epigenetic deregulation associates with many neurodevelopmental disorders, and recent evidence indicates that maternal nutritional status can alter chromatin marks in the offspring brain. Thus, maternal obesity may disrupt epigenetic regulation of gene expression during offspring neurodevelopment. Using a C57BL/6 mouse model, we investigated whether maternal high fat diet (mHFD)-induced obesity alters the expression of genes previously implicated in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders within the Gestational Day 17.5 (GD 17.5) offspring hippocampus. We found significant two-fold upregulation of oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) mRNA in the hippocampus of male, but not female, GD 17.5 offspring from mHFD-induced obese dams (p < 0.05). To determine whether altered histone binding at the Oxtr gene promoter may underpin these transcriptional changes, we then performed chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Consistent with the Oxtr transcriptional changes, we observed increased binding of active histone mark H3K9Ac at the Oxtr transcriptional start site (TSS) in the hippocampus of mHFD male (p < 0.05), but not female, offspring. Together, these data indicate an increased vulnerability of male offspring to maternal obesity-induced changes in chromatin remodeling processes that regulate gene expression in the developing hippocampus, and contributes to our understanding of how early life nutrition affects the offspring brain epigenome.Item Restricted Ovarian follicle size or growth rate can both be determinants of ovulatory follicle selection in mice(Society for the Study of Reproduction, 2024-01) Richard, S; Zhou, Y; Jasoni, CL; Pankhurst, MWThe endocrinology regulating ovulation of the desired number of oocytes in the ovarian cycle is well described, particularly in mono-ovulatory species. Less is known about the characteristics that make one follicle suitable for ovulation while most other follicles die by atresia. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) injection was used to characterize granulosa cell proliferation rates in developing ovarian follicles in the estrous cycle of mice. This methodology allowed identification of follicle diameters of secondary (80-130 μm), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)-sensitive (130-170 μm), FSH-dependent (170-350 μm), and preovulatory (>350 μm) follicles. Few preovulatory-sized follicles were present in the ovaries of mice at estrus, the beginning of the cycle. Progressive increases were seen at metestrus and diestrus, when full accumulation of the preovulatory cohort (∼10 follicles) occurred. BrdU pulse-chase studies determined granulosa cell proliferation rates in the 24-48 h before the follicle reached the preovulatory stage. This showed that slow-growing follicles were not able to survive to the preovulatory stage. Mathematical modeling of follicle growth rates determined that the largest follicles at the beginning of the cycle had the greatest chance of becoming preovulatory. However, smaller follicles could enter the preovulatory follicle pool if low numbers of large antral follicles were present at the beginning of the cycle. In this instance, rapidly growing follicles had a clear selection advantage. The developing follicle pool displays heterogeneity in granulosa cell proliferation rates, even among follicles at the same stage of development. This parameter appears to influence whether a follicle can ovulate or become atretic.Item Restricted Calcium caseinate enhancement of bread and its role in manipulating the glycaemic response and antioxidant potential of the product(Wiley on behalf of Institute of Food Science and Technology, 2024) Idahagbon, Nosa B; Kumar, Lokesh; Nicholas, Robert J; Oluyemi, Mary B; Brennan, Charles SThe impact of supplementing bread with calcium caseinate was studied at substitution levels of 5%, 10% and 15%. The research assessed the baking properties, nutritional value, glycaemic response and antioxidant activity of the experimental bread samples. Addition led to a significant increase in protein content, reaching up to 22% of the total energy supply at 15% substitution. Essential amino acids, such as valine, leucine and isoleucine, more than doubled in concentration at the 15% substitution level. Furthermore, the incorporation of calcium caseinate improved the textural properties of the bread, significantly increasing the bread volume and reducing setback viscosity (P< 0.05). The predicted glycaemic response, as measured by the area under the glucose release curve, showed a notable reduction in sugar levels at 15% substitution. These results suggest that bread enriched with calcium caseinate can serve as a valuable protein source for the population, offering both enhanced nutritional benefits and favourable baking characteristics.Item Restricted Packaging, perception, and acceptability: A comprehensive exploration of extrinsic attributes and consumer behaviours in novel food product systems(Wiley on behalf of Institute of Food Science and Technology, 2024-01) Mehta, A; Serventi, Luca; Kumar, Lokesh; Morton, James; Torrico, DamirIn today's global markets, the constant arrival of new products represents a challenge for the food industry to offer distinct choices to consumers, primarily due to the parallel sensory attributes and pricing structures of the available food options. Innovators must employ methodologies beyond traditional sensory analysis to ensure the product's success. Researchers must, therefore, explore the entire product experience to understand its influence on consumer behaviours. Food choices are multifaceted, influenced by various factors, including individual physiological and psychological characteristics and intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes. As a result, consumers' decisions are shaped by the multisensory information derived from products they encounter in supermarkets. This review aims to comprehensively examine the factors influencing consumer food choices, from initial product encounters to consumption. The review explores the impact of repetitive tasting on the consumer's attitudes and intentions towards novel products. Additionally, the review investigates which extrinsic attributes capture consumer attention in supermarket settings. It also delves into the effects of extrinsic product attributes on both explicit and implicit emotions and expectations raised about the sensory properties of the product and, ultimately, their purchasing behaviours.Item Restricted Maternal obesity modulates expression of Satb2 in hypothalamic VMN of female offspring(Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), 2020-04) Glendining, KA; Fisher, LC; Jasoni, CLMaternal obesity during pregnancy is associated with a greater risk of poor health outcomes in offspring, including obesity, metabolic disorders, and anxiety, however the incidence of these diseases differs for males and females. Similarly, animal models of maternal obesity have reported sex differences in offspring, for both metabolic outcomes and anxiety-like behaviors. The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMN) is a brain region known to be involved in the regulation of both metabolism and anxiety, and is well documented to be sexually dimorphic. As the VMN is largely composed of glutamatergic neurons, which are important for its functions in modulating metabolism and anxiety, we hypothesized that maternal obesity may alter the number of glutamatergic neurons in the offspring VMN. We used a mouse model of a maternal high-fat diet (mHFD), to examine mRNA expression of the glutamatergic neuronal marker Satb2 in the mediobasal hypothalamus of control and mHFD offspring at GD17.5. We found sex differences in Satb2 expression, with mHFD-induced upregulation of Satb2 mRNA in the mediobasal hypothalamus of female offspring, compared to controls, but not males. Using immunohistochemistry, we found an increase in the number of SATB2-positive cells in female mHFD offspring VMN, compared to controls, which was localized to the rostral region of the nucleus. These data provide evidence that maternal nutrition during gestation alters the developing VMN, possibly increasing its glutamatergic drive of offspring in a sex-specific manner, which may contribute to sexual dimorphism in offspring health outcomes later in life.Item Restricted Do capital markets reward corporate climate change actions? Evidence from the cost of debt(Wiley-Blackwell, 2023-09) Ali, Khurshid; Nadeem, M; Pandey, R; Bhabra, GSAs a result of recurring natural disasters caused by climate change, firms are under enormous pressure to reconsider their environmental footprints. However, whether or not investors reward firms' climate change actions remains a topic of considerable debate. Using a sample of S&P 500 companies over the period 2005–2020, we hypothesise and find a significant negative relationship between climate change actions and the cost of debt, indicating that investors indeed reward corporate climate efforts in the form of lower cost funds. This relationship exists in both environmentally sensitive and non‐sensitive industries and remains negative and statistically significant even after controlling for the impact of the ongoing pandemic (COVID‐19). The findings are robust to the use of alternative measures for our variables, alternative estimation methods and after controlling for endogeneity issues. We interpret our findings within the decision‐usefulness and stakeholder‐agency theories that suggest that non‐financial information on firms' environmental performance is becoming increasingly important when borrowers' creditworthiness is assessed. Our study offers important regulatory and academic policy implications.Item Restricted Māori prosperity through agrifood innovation: Success stories in Aotearoa New Zealand's food and fibre sector(2024) Jahnke-Waitoa, S; O'Connor, Chrystal; Tangiora, HirainaWe will discuss mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) from a recent survey asking Māori which plants, vegetables, and rākau rongoā (medicinal plants) are significant to them, and some of their current uses today. We will explain the significant role that insects play in Māori culture as food, medicine, and cultural narratives. Finally, we'll discuss how revitalising potential future food sources like insects benefits from Indigenous knowledge and the care that should be taken when integrating it into Western science.Item Restricted Designed for leisure … for all? Gendered experiences and practices of leisure at the architect designed second home(Taylor & Francis, 2019) Walters, TrudieIn contrast to an inherited or repurposed second home, owners are able to stipulate how their leisure practices are catered for when they employ an architect to design their second home. This longitudinal study examines gendered experiences and practices of leisure at architect designed second homes in New Zealand, through an analysis of written and visual discourse in an architecture and lifestyle magazine over a period of 80 years. The identified themes were persistent over the 80 years, but the discourses evolved through time and indicate the socio-cultural context in which they were written. The findings suggest that although the opportunity to imagine a ‘life lived differently’ exists at the second home, for the second homeowners featured in the magazine articles at least, this does not extend to gender relations. This may be in part due to the very nature of the second home, whereby it is difficult to escape the deeply ingrained gender ideologies associated with home/work, productive/reproductive dichotomies.Item Restricted Bromley on property rights : A critique of "Property Rights and the Environment : Natural Resource Policy in Transition"(1989) Anderson, Terry L.; Hide, Rodney P.In August 1987 Professor Daniel W. Bromley from Wisconsin University visited New Zealand. In a series of lectures he generated widespread interest in the role and significance of property rights in natural resource and environmental policy and in the process did much to dispel the suspicions that those concerned with natural resource and environmental policy had of economists. Fortunately the lectures that he gave have now been published as a collection of papers titled "Property Rights and the Environment: Natural Resource Policy in Transition" (Ministry for the Environment, April 1988). * The framework that Professor Bromley has provided for the analysis of natural resource and environmental policy is without parallel in New Zealand both in its penetration of the issues and in the scope with which it considers them. The importance of his work has not been lost on New Zealanders. It was, for example, extensively referred to in the recent Royal Commission on Social Policy. His framework is also proving of especial importance as New Zealand's town and country planning, minerals, and soil and water legislation undergoes major reform. Professor Bromley has made, in short, an enormous contribution to policy analysis in New Zealand. Professor Bromley has also stimulated ourselves and other scholars to think about the importance of property rights to resource allocation. Because of the importance of his work we have studied it most carefully. What began as marginal notes and discussion has now grown into a full critique. It is a critique that should prove of interest to students of policy and those interested in natural resource and environmental issues.Publication Restricted Wine tourism, innovation, and sustainable winegrowing in cool climate regions: A longitudinal international comparative analysis(Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2024-02-03) Baird, Tim; Hall, CM; Castka, P; Ramkissoon, H; Martinez-Falcö, J; Marco-Lajara, B; Sanchez-Garcia, E; Millân-Tudela, LAThis study examines wineries’ perceptions towards innovation within the context of wine tourism and sustainable winegrowing practices in New Zealand. In order to investigate and contextualise the current situation in New Zealand, the National Wineries’ Survey was revisited and extended to provide a longitudinal time series of data from the New Zealand wine industry. This data was also used to provide a comparison of the New Zealand perceptions of innovation with that of the Australian cool climate regions of Tasmania and Western Australia. The findings indicated that there were substantial concerns with the perceived value provided by wine tourism and sustainable winegrowing practices. The issue of mandatory versus voluntary membership of sustainable winegrowing programmes was shown to be a key reason why New Zealand winegrowers exhibited animosity towards the Sustainable Winegrowers New Zealand [SWNZ] scheme. This difference in attitudes between the two countries was further highlighted through the examination of the voluntary sustainable winegrowing programmes which currently exist within Australia. In particular, the study highlighted the potentially contested nature of sustainability initiatives throughout different levels of organisational governance. While sustainability initiatives may be promoted at one level, other levels may have substantial misgivings as to the appropriateness of such innovations.Item Restricted “Work it, work it non-stop” – Event industry employees' unconscious application of the Five Ways to Wellbeing(Emerald Publishing Limited, 2023-02-07) Stadler, R; Walters, Trudie; Jepson, ASPurpose: This paper explores mental wellbeing in the events industry. We argue that mental wellbeing is often difficult to achieve in the stressful and deadline-driven events industry, and that better awareness and understanding of specific actions for employees to flourish at work is needed. Design/methodology/approach: We used in-depth semi-structured interviews with event professionals in the UK to investigate their individual coping strategies. To contextualise, we used the Five Ways to Wellbeing framework as an analytical tool. Findings: Our findings reveal that event professionals currently unconsciously engage in a variety of actions to maintain and enhance their mental wellbeing outside of work, but not at work. Out of the Five Ways to Wellbeing, specific actions to Connect, Be Active and Take Notice were most important to event professionals. The remaining two ways, Keep Learning and Give, were also identified in the data, although they were less prominent. Practical implications: We present recommendations for event professionals to more consciously engage with the Five Ways to Wellbeing and for employers to develop mental wellbeing initiatives that allow their employees to flourish. Originality/value: In event studies, the Five Ways to Wellbeing have thus far only been applied to event attendees, volunteers and the local community. Our paper highlights how event employees can also benefit from engaging in some of the actions set out in the framework to enhance their mental wellbeing at work.Item Restricted The InterACT Disability Arts Festival: Creating revolutionary futures?(Emerald Publishing Limited, 2023-06-13) Walters, TrudiePurpose: This exploratory study seeks to understand whether an arts event designed with/by/for disabled people (the InterACT Disability Arts Festival in New Zealand) has the potential to create revolutionary futures, defined as those which help determine new paths, make the future less fearsome and allow more positive outcomes. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative approach was taken in this study. Interviews were carried out with ten disabled event attendees, two support workers, one family member, four event volunteers, two activity providers and the main event organiser of the 2019 festival. Active participant observation was also used to collect data. Deductive thematic analysis was used to determine themes and subthemes in the material. Findings: The findings suggest the case study arts event does help to create revolutionary futures for disabled attendees through disrupting the narratives of disability, making sense of lives lived and changing lives yet to be lived. Research limitations/implications: Limited windows of opportunity were available to interact with attendees, and just 17 in-the-moment interviews were conducted. However, the findings still have value as data saturation was reached. A “revolutionary futures” conceptual framework is presented to understand the nexus between disability worlds and events and thus amplify the benefits for attendees. Originality/value: Research carried out to date has provided much-needed understanding about the challenges facing disabled people at events, but this study turns this deficit approach around to focus on the opportunities provided by event participation.Item Restricted Sustainable humans: A framework for applying sustainable HRM principles to the events industry(Cognizant Communication Corporation, 2022) Stadler, R; Walters, Trudie; Jepson, AMost research into human resource management offers best practice strategies but often assumes that employees and organizations are homogenous. The events industry is fundamentally different: it is a stressful, fast paced, competitive, deadline-driven industry with unsociable working hours. Human resource management (HRM) in events currently adopts a short-term and operational approach, which has led to the industry having high staff turnover, and employees suffering from high levels of stress, poor mental health, and professional burnout. Using an online survey and in-depth semistructured interviews with event industry employees, this article critically examines sustainable HRM principles with the aim of understanding if, and how, they could be implemented in the events industry as an alternative to reduce employee stress and to achieve longer-term well-being—a state that is beneficial not just to the individual, but to organizations and the industry as a whole. A framework for future research is presented and practical implications discussed.Item Restricted The difference Diwali makes: Understanding the contribution of a cultural event to subjective well-being for ethnic minority communities(Cognizant Communication Corporation, 2022) Walters, Trudie; Venkatachalam, TSThis research provides a nuanced understanding of the contribution of cultural events to subjective well-being for ethnic minority migrant communities, who often face significant challenges in their new lives. The article investigates how the intersection of sense of community and subjective wellbeing function in this context. It focuses on the Hindu celebration of Diwali/Deepavali (the Festival of Lights) in two New Zealand cities. Data from interviews with event attendees and organizers were thematically analyzed using the McMillan and Chavis “sense of community” framework, overlaid with a conceptualization of subjective well-being developed by Davidson and Cotter. The analysis reveals strong evidence of the creation and maintenance of sense of community at multiple levels, from the diasporic Indian subcommunities through to the wider non-Indian macrocommunity. The most significant components are membership, fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connection: they are also the most significant point of intersection with factors contributing to subjective well-being. These cultural events provide event attendees with opportunities to experience and express positive affects such as happiness, joy, pride, pleasure. They also demonstrate influence in that they respect, promote, and support the ethnic minority migrant subcommunity and act as a bridge to form a sense of community with the macrocommunity through membership and shared emotional connection. To maximize these wider benefits, we recommend practitioners hold such events regularly, advertise widely, select venues that are readily accessible and nonthreatening, and provide informative explanatory contentItem Restricted Place-based community events and resistance to territorial stigmatisation(Emerald Publishing Limited, 2024-03-15) McGillivray, D; Walters, Trudie; Guillard, SPurpose: Place-based community events fulfil important functions, internally and externally. They provide opportunities for people from diverse communities and cultures to encounter each other, to participate in pleasurable activities in convivial settings and to develop mutual understanding. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the value of such events as a means of resisting or challenging the deleterious effects of territorial stigmatisation. Design/methodology/approach: The authors explore two place-based community events in areas that have been subject to territorial stigmatisation: Govanhill in Glasgow, Scotland, and South Dunedin, New Zealand. They draw on in-depth case study methods including observation and interviews with key local actors and employ inductive analysis to identify themes across the datasets. Findings: The demonstrate how neighbourhood events in both Glasgow and Dunedin actively seek to address some of the deleterious outcomes of territorial stigmatisation by emphasising strength and asset-based discourses about the areas they reflect and represent. In their planning and organisation, both events play an important mediating role in building and empowering community, fostering intercultural encounters with difference and strengthening mutuality within their defined places. They make use of public and semi-public spaces to attract diverse groups while also increasing the visibility of marginalised populations through larger showcase events. Research limitations/implications: The empirical element focuses only on two events, one in Glasgow, Scotland (UK), and the other in South Dunedin (New Zealand). Data generated were wholly qualitative and do not provide quantitative evidence of “change” to material circumstances in either case study community. Practical implications: Helps organisers think about how they need to better understand their communities if they are to attract diverse participation, including how they programme public and semi-public spaces. Social implications: Place-based community events have significant value to neighbourhoods, and they need to be resourced effectively if they are to sustain the benefits they produce. These events provide an opportunity for diverse communities to encounter each other and celebrate what they share rather than what divides them. Originality/value: This paper is the first to examine how place-based community events help resist narratives of territorial stigmatisation, which produce negative representations about people and their environments. The paper draws on ethnographic insights generated over time rather than a one-off snapshot which undermines some events research.Item Restricted Towards a framework for measuring local government return on investment in arts and cultural development(Taylor & Francis, 2019) Walters, Trudie; Chandler, L; Clark, SLocal governments make a significant annual investment in arts and cultural development programmes. However, the practicalities of measuring the return on this investment have been largely overlooked by researchers, and investigations into return on investment have frequently focused on the economic return. Here, it is argued that intrinsic social and cultural returns on investment are equally important. A further issue is that measurement frameworks have often taken an outputs-based approach, seeking to evaluate the performance of one-off events rather than measuring the outcomes or impact of the total investment in arts and cultural development over the life of a policy or strategy. This paper therefore takes a broader, outcomes-based approach and offers a practical evaluation framework. An implementation-ready method is presented which will allow local government policy-makers to provide evidence of medium- and long-term outcomes and impacts of their arts and cultural development programmes and weigh this against their investment.Item Restricted Challenging the Eurocentrism in volunteering(Taylor & Francis on behalf of World Leisure Organization, 2023) Polus, R; Carr, N; Walters, TrudieVolunteering practices have largely drawn on theories based on Eurocentric conceptualizations. The dominant Eurocentric models of volunteering, as a significant leisure experience, have served to marginalize other definitions and practices. Thus, this paper argues that, while the Eurocentric conceptualization provides a useful framework to understand volunteering in different cultural contexts, it is critical to embrace the complexities and nuances that exist beyond this. Consequently, the paper presents a critical examination of the limitations of this dominant conceptualization of volunteering. In doing so, the paper challenges Eurocentrism domination in the studies of volunteerism and discourse and examines how volunteering can (and does) differ across cultural contexts, to varying degrees. Overall, this paper shows that volunteering is a more complex and nuanced concept than the dominant Eurocentric models depict. Consequently, this paper offers a potential springboard from which to critically examine potentially contested culturally driven meanings of leisure, of which volunteering is an integral component, empowering people to own their leisure rather than conform to Eurocentric definitions of leisure.Item Restricted Stress, mental health and well-being in the events industry: Report of key findings(2021-09) Stadler, R; Walters, Trudie; Jepson, AThe way people are managed at work has a profound influence on their well-being. In the stressful and deadline-driven events industry this is, however, often overlooked. Previous research has found that stressors specific to the events industry include: workload, time pressure, role stressors, job insecurity and work-family conflict (Odio et al, 2013), potentially leading to professional burnout. The aim of this project is to gain a more nuanced understanding of the mental well-being of event professionals working in a very stressful and deadline-driven industry with particular emphasis on policies, practices and the crucial role of employers in how employees experience stress, and how it impacts their productivity and health. The project was a collaborative one, undertaken by Festivals, Events and Wellbeing Research, a research consortium that consists of multidisciplinary researchers from the University of Hertfordshire and Walters Research and Consulting, who are interested in exploring the impacts of contemporary leisure and events; and Stress Matters, a UK based organisation that provides a wide range of professional services to meet workplace well-being and team development needs, with a specific focus on creative businesses. This report summarises key findings from an online survey and semi-structured interviews with event professionals in the UK. It begins by highlighting the main stressors within the events industry, then focuses on individual coping strategies used by employees to deal with these stressors, followed by a discussion of company policies and practices that employers put in place in order to help manage and reduce stress for their employees. Based on an analysis of ‘what employees really want’, the report concludes with a set of recommendations for event professionals and the wider industry.Item Restricted Crop physiology: Disease effects and yield loss(Australian Plant Pathology Society, 1978) Gaunt, R. E.The growth of a crop is regulated by the summation of genetic and environmental limitations, and may conveniently be divided into several developmental stages. These stages often have been studied in isolation by plant physiologists, and the factors limiting each stage examined in detail. This information may be used to produce a model of crop growth, which can usefully highlight the limitations (in a physiological sense) imposed on development at the various stages, This, combined with a knowledge of the behaviour and interactions of components of yield, may be of great significance to studies of reduction in yield caused by pathogens, and may be used as a basis for deciding on sampling times and methods. This approach may also be useful in the interpretation of disease/yield loss relationship. The principles involved in this type of analysis are best illustrated by work on cereals and their foliar pathogens.