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Theses submitted by Lincoln University masters students.
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Publication Open Access The wellbeing experience within a New Zealand township. New Zealand Treasury’s Living Standards Framework in a hyper-local context : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Troy, HelenThe New Zealand Treasury published ‘Te Tai Waiora’, its first wellbeing report in November 2022. The report presents data on how wellbeing has changed, how wellbeing is distributed and the sustainability of wellbeing in Aotearoa New Zealand. The data collected are analysed using the Living Standards Framework, which provides New Zealand Treasury with a systematic approach to offer policy advice and identify the implications of policy, based on a range of evidence gathered over time. This research tests the Treasury’s Living Standards Framework at a hyper-local scale (focusing on matters within a small community or specific geographic location), to understand the extent to which a central government approach to measuring wellbeing is appropriate at a local scale. This study found that indicators that provide data for analysis require context and are most relevant when applied ‘at scale’ to identify the wellbeing experience of individuals and communities. Using a mixed methods approach, the data from the quantitative research showed individuals are significantly more satisfied with various aspects of wellbeing at a local scale than at a national scale. These aspects include the natural environment, safety, housing affordability and political voice. In the qualitative data, it was found that, through a series of processes an individual generates their own wellbeing depending upon capabilities, financial security, locality and employment mobility opportunities. Individuals improved their wellbeing by making deliberate choices within the context of those capabilities. Home ownership was associated with employment mobility and individuals made trade-offs between dimensions of wellbeing as a function of personal value. Both research methods revealed that ‘local matters.’ The findings from this study will contribute to the growing literature on wellbeing. This thesis demonstrates that measuring the wellbeing experience of a small community in a specific geographic location can result in significant differences in wellbeing experiences between the national and local scale. Therefore, adopting an ‘at scale’ approach is more appropriate for policy development if central government is concerned with the wellbeing of all New Zealanders, irrespective of their locality.Publication Embargo Evaluating the in vitro efficacy of Abamectin and Fluopyram, alongside hot water treatments against Meloidogyne incognita and Globodera rostochiensis : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) McDonald, MarissaPlant germplasm importation into Aotearoa/New Zealand poses a risk of introducing unwanted organisms. Current biosecurity measures for plant nematodes on imported nursery stock are under review. This study aimed to investigate alternative chemicals that could replace fenamiphos, the current border treatment. Abamectin and fluopyram were chosen for assays based on their demonstrated nematocidal activity and availablity. Hot water submersion was also tested as a non- chemical alternative. Pratylenchus sp. were extracted from field samples and identified using morphology and molecular methods. Cultures of Meloidogyne incognita and extraction of Globodera rostochiensis cysts were successful, but Pratylenchus sp. cultures could not be established. Preliminary experiments tested the field rates of abamectin (0.009 g/L a.i) and fluopyram (0.3 g/L a.i.) individually and in combination, along with two fenamiphos concentrations (2 g/L and 40 g/L). Abamectin and fluopyram resulted in paralysis rates of ≥ 66.7% in M. incognita J2s, while fenamiphos exhibited no significant differences from the negative control. All treatments produced reversible effects on J2 immobility, indicating a nematistatic effect. Hot water experiments at 44°C for 3 hours caused complete and irreversible paralysis in M. incognita J2s. Further experiments using varying concentrations of abamectin and fluopyram on M. incognita J2s, indicating the highest paralysis rate with abamectin (0.09 g/L a.i.) was 75.2%, while concentrations of fluopyram ≥ 0.6 g/L resulted in 100% paralysis. All combined concentrations of abamectin and fluopyram resulted in 100% paralysis, as did hot water treatments for 1 and 2 hours at 44 and 50°C. In preliminary experiments, no chemical treatments achieved complete mortality in G. rostochiensis juveniles, and no significant differences were observed in the proportion of immobile juveniles compared to the negative control. Hot water treatments at 44°C for 3 hours, in combination with abamectin, fluopyram, abamectin and fluopyram together, and 40 g/L fenamiphos, completely immobilized G. rostochiensis juveniles 48 hours after treatment. Retrospective analysis found the G. rostochiensis experiment results inconclusive due to assessing viability based on movement rather than more precise methods. A preliminary trial using Meldola blue stain revealed that live G. rostochiensis juveniles remained unstained, while dead juveniles stained when exposed to 0.05% Meldola blue for 3, 5, and 7 days. This method was incorporated into further G. rostochiensis experiments. Further chemical experiments on cysts showed no differences compared to the negative control of RO water based on the proportions of juveniles stained with Meldola blue. Hot water treatments at 44°C and 50°C for 1 and 2 hours caused a lower percentage of deceased juveniles compared with the negative control of 24°C. Further experimentation using in planta bioassays are recommended to assess how the chemicals affects nematodes contained within plant tissues as well as plant viability. Expanding the research to encompass a broader range of nematode species is also recommended. Overall, the study demonstrated the potential of abamectin, fluopyram and hot water submersion which provided the complete mortality required in biosecurity situations as alternatives to fenamiphos for biosecurity measures in Aotearoa/New Zealand.Publication Embargo New Zealand wine exports to China: Barriers and potential mitigation strategies : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Master of Commerce and Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2024) Yu, HaoWith the gradual expansion of Asian wine consumption in the past decade, China has become Asia’s largest and most significant wine consumption market. As a result, China has become one of the most significant target markets for New Zealand wine exports to Asia. In terms of purchasing power, China is a large potential market. However, Chinese wine consumption has declined recently, and New Zealand's wine market share in China has stagnated. Because of a different drinking culture, government policies, and COVID-19, exports of New Zealand wine to China have encountered various barriers, especially during the pandemic, that eventually prevented New Zealand wine exporters from exploring the Chinese market. This study reviews the global wine industry, the New Zealand wine industry, and the Chinese wine market recently. The literature review focuses on Chinese wine consumers’ preferences, export strategies, and a framework for export barriers. The study uses in-depth interviews with New Zealand wine exporters and Chinese wine importers to investigate New Zealand wine exporters’ backgrounds, export processes, entering the Chinese market mode, export strategies, and various barriers encountered in exporting to China. According to the findings, potential strategies are proposed to mitigate the barriers encountered by New Zealand wine exporters. The primary data were obtained from semi-structured interviews of 12 wine exporters in New Zealand between June and August 2023. These exporters are also local wine producers and export their products. The interviewees are leaders directly engaged in wine exporting or understand the relevant export business currently working as New Zealand wine exporters. Secondary data come from literature studies and published reports by research institutions. Three Chinese wine importers in Shanghai were also interviewed to understand the barriers to New Zealand exporters from a different perspective. The results show that indirect exports are more suitable for entering the Chinese market. Successful exporting is related to rich exporting experience and adequate financial and human resources. The recent barriers New Zealand wine exporters face include exogenous, procedural, resource, and knowledge and experience barriers. Exporters can actively enhance export knowledge and accumulate experience to mitigate the impact of export barriers on enterprises. The results provide new evidence of the success of New Zealand wine exporters in exploring the Chinese market. The results also give policymakers insights on exporting to China, increasing their export experience, and mitigating and eliminating the main export barriers to speed up internationalisation.Publication Embargo Identification and characterisation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from spontaneous fermentation of organic Pinot noir wines : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2024) McKendrey, Jayanta WhitleyThis study characterised Saccharomyces cerevisiae populations from the spontaneous fermentation of organic Pinot noir wines produce in Waipara, Aotearoa New Zealand, using a DNA-based Interdelta typing method to evaluate their strain diversity and population dynamics. One hundred and sixty-one S. cerevisiae isolates from key fermentation stages were differentiated by interdelta typing into 106 different genotypes (profiles), of which 24 were observed more than once. One interdelta genotype was observed among each of the fermentation stages studied. The S. cerevisiae population showed a high level of strain diversity with evident dominant groupings of strains during and between fermentation stages. Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain diversity increased towards the end of fermentation accompanied with late-stage dominance by the species. Spontaneous fermentation of organically produced wine may harbour a genetically diverse population of S. cerevisiae strains but appears to be dominated by few genotypes. The influence of each genotype on the organoleptic properties of the eventual product is unknown at this point. However, the use of interdelta typing to identify strains of special relevance with commercial potential is supported.Publication Open Access Newly-claimed seascapes: Options and potential applications : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science in Environmental Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) White, Faye RoseWorldwide, communities and natural ecosystems are challenged by rising seas. Understandably, much of the response has focused on hazard mitigation to protect human populations, investment and infrastructure. As communities are forced to retreat from coastal areas and as inundation occurs, our coastal margins will change. I term these newly inundated areas “newly-claimed seascapes” (NCSs). The available options for NCSs are currently unclear. For some places, where the social, political and environmental conditions permit, there may be opportunities to repurpose them. For example, for sheltered coastal areas, shallow estuaries and harbours, they could be repurposed for aquaculture, fisheries, wetlands, and/or blue carbon. To aid policy and community preparation, this research used a global systematic literature review to identify options for NSCs. Thirty-nine potential options were identified and categorised to aid policy reform and coastal adaptation. Using Aotearoa/New Zealand as a case study to explore whether repurposing is feasible under current legislative frameworks, I undertook a content analysis of applicable legislation and policy. Finally, to determine the current state of play for local planning in this context, I interviewed a representative of regional councils currently reviewing their regional coastal plans to ascertain whether they are considering repurposing NCSs. Whilst repurposing is implicitly enabled under the current legislation, it is not explicitly directed. As a result, the interviewed regional councils were not preparing to repurpose NCSs at the time of this research. Given that the time to find solutions for coastal areas is becoming increasingly constrained, I argue that the PARA (protect, accommodate, retreat, avoid) management framework currently being promoted as best practice in responding to sea-level rise could be extended to PARAR to include the term Repurpose. Repurposing could help to broaden perspectives on sea-level rise from a sense of fear and loss to positive solutions and opportunities.Publication Open Access Artificial neural network approaches for modelling complex biological network – Mammalian cell cycle : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Sorthiya, KomalAn important process in the growth of any biological organism is its ability to proliferate, a tightly controlled process in which a cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. This happens within a dynamic environment, where a cell responds to various internal and external signals through a well-ordered sequence of events called the cell cycle. Underlying these events is a complex and elegantly orchestrated web of interactions that function as an integrated system with various sub-systems that specialise in various tasks. Two such important tasks include cell cycle initiation in response to proliferative signals and the interaction of numerous elements for the completion of the cell cycle. This results in a highly complex system. Any malfunctioning during cell cycle division can cause diseases like Cancer. For gaining insights into biological reactions and their effects, cellular modelling approaches have contributed immensely. A few gaps are recognised in the field after reviewing the literature on mammalian cell cycle modelling. Most models are based on mathematical formulation representing the dynamic behaviour of the cell cycle which includes varied equations ranging from a few to tens of equations. They produce accurate systems dynamics, but the models are complex to solve and require the knowledge of many parameters. On the other hand, Discrete Models are simpler and use a qualitative approach but have numerous limitations to represent the continuous dynamics of the Mammalian Cell cycle. Therefore, there is a need for a modelling approach that is simplified but comprehensively represents the system. Mainly, the representation of a complex system in a robust way is a crucial demand. Our research mainly aims to introduce Artificial Neural Network approaches that mimic the mammalian cell cycle in an intuitive way. The goal is to explore the updated biological knowledge and develop ANN-based mathematical models to check their capabilities for mimicking cell signalling mechanisms.Publication Embargo The role of information in land-use decision-making : The perspective of farmers in New Zealand :(Lincoln University, 2023) Blake, AimeeAgri-food systems are facing increasing pressure to transition toward more sustainable alternatives, which are information-intensive and may require different forms of knowledge. Therefore, optimal and sustainable land-use decision-making requires effective information provision. However, digital technologies and the information age have changed the ways in which farmers interact with information. This necessitates different approaches and raises questions regarding how and why farmers gather information and whom they trust. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the role of information in land-use decision-making from the perspective of farmers in New Zealand. Twenty-two semi-structured interviews with commercial pastoral farmers and a focus group with emerging young farmers were conducted. The results evidence that information is important for decision-making and that gathering processes are personal and contextual. The farmer participants sourced information from a variety of sources across digital and physical formats. Traditional institutions (i.e., industry groups) were recognised; however, digital and informal sources (i.e., the internet and interpersonal networks) were the most utilised. The farmer participants engaged as researchers and information curators online and within networks, to share learnings in communities of practice. The young farmer participants particularly interacted digitally, following farmer influencers and utilising artificial intelligence (AI). Audio formats were acknowledged as useful, and information about consumers was important, signalling market orientation. Combining formal and informal elements, the farmer participants valued how catchment groups are community-led and outcomes-focused. Additionally, knowledge brokering through intermediaries at the catchment level assisted with information exchanges. The most trusted sources of information were other high-achieving farmers and interpersonal networks; however, there were mixed experiences with peers. Validation of information occurred through a triangulation and cross-referencing process. Attempts to determine what is trustworthy were challenging due to misinformation and information overload, which hindered effective decision-making. Farmers largely felt that strategic land-use information was challenging to source, especially in relation to regional contexts. Overall, the results signal the need to combine the best of informal and formal sources and that farmers should be recognised as co-creators of information. This research contributes to the literature on information and farmer decision-making in the information age. Potential actions that emerge from the findings include improving digital literacy, hybrid approaches to information provision, adopting listening rather than telling approaches, and supporting intermediaries. These insights could be of interest to inform effective approaches to information provision. Future research into digital literacy, the perspectives of information providers, and the influence of evolving sources (i.e., AI) would be useful. Additionally, the implications of misinformation and information disorders on trust and decision-making should be considered. It is concluded that as technologies evolve, an ongoing conceptualisation of information and farmer habits will be required.Publication Open Access How can the design of wineries support wellbeing? A study of wineries in Waipara, Aotearoa New Zealand : A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Landscape Architecture at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Goh, Jiang Han JeremyWine and food share important connections to the landscape, and these connections are increasingly being recognised as important to wellbeing. Farmers’ markets and locally focused food menus, alongside the heightened awareness of the value of being in landscape settings, exemplify the significance of opportunities to enjoy the fruits of the earth within the landscape that produced them. However, while there is an established understanding of the connections between nature and wellbeing, and a growing number of studies of gastronomical aspects of the food-landscape relationship, there is little research on how wineries might also offer wellbeing benefits. Locating and identifying patterns of how wineries are designed can offer insight into the place-specific experiences that are encouraged within wineries, the activities provided and how future wineries may be designed to support wellbeing. The goal of this research is to determine how wineries as places - including their location, design, and activities - support wellbeing. A two-phase process was used to identify potential winery cases across Aotearoa New Zealand, followed by a detailed selection based on their landscape, spatial settings, and location. Then from the samples identified, wineries with similar activities were selected and compared based on their landscape and spatial settings. Using a Mash-Up approach, categories and qualities were extracted from parallel studies of institutions known to support wellbeing such as hospitals, schools, and universities. The categories of Vegetation and Nature; Social; Environmental Control; Inclusivity; Spatial; and Multi-Sensory were identified from the parallel studies. Two additional categories were identified at the case study sites, they are: Animals and Time. Field work involved on-site inventorying at the four sites, using the categories derived from the parallel studies. Lastly, a normative critique of the case study sites was conducted that identified a wide range of landscape elements that echo those from the parallel studies, and indicate that wineries - like schools, hospitals, and universities - have a role to play in supporting wellbeing. This research identifies valuable insights into how wineries offer restorative environments and this in turn can inform other settings, such as those from the parallel studies.Publication Open Access Impact of mobile payment adoption on household expenditures and subjective well-being : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Commerce and Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) He, QuanIn recent years, mobile payment has gradually become increasingly popular worldwide. Especially in China, mobile payments are ubiquitous and gradually replacing traditional cash payments. This thesis estimates the effects of mobile payment adoption on household expenditures and subjective well-being. It considersfour categories of household expenditures (clothes, durable goods, consumer goods, and cultural and leisure activities) and four indicators (life satisfaction, contentment, income satisfaction, and depression) of subjective well-being. This thesis uses the Augmented Inverse Probability Weighting estimator to analyse the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey data while accounting for the selection bias inherent in mobile payment adoption. The empirical results show that people’s decisions to adopt mobile payments are positively associated with their educational level, car ownership, social interaction, Internet penetration rate, and residential location. Mobile payment adoption significantly increases household expenditures on consumer goods and cultural and leisure activities but not on clothes and durable goods. Moreover, mobile payment adoption significantly decreases contentment while increasing depression. This thesis also finds that mobile payment adoption significantly decreases urban people’s contentment but significantly increases urban people’s depression. Disaggregated analyses show that mobile payment adoption increases spending on consumer goods but decreases contentment for urban households; increases spending on consumer goods and depression for rural households; increases spending on consumer goods; decreases contentment and income satisfaction for male respondents; and increases spending on clothing, cultural, and leisure activities, and depression for female respondents. Therefore, the government should create products and services to extend the benefits of mobile payments to all segments of Chinese society. At the same time, it should help consumers avoid the debt incurredthrough educational programs and advertising.Publication Open Access Clean energy use and subjective and objective health outcomes in rural China : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Commerce and Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Zhu, HuanyuOne of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals is to ensure access to affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy for all. This thesis analyses the impact of clean energy use on rural residents' subjective health outcomes (self-reported health status, health change, and discomfort) and objective health outcomes (the incidence of bronchitis, asthma, and medical expenditure and fitness expenditure). Using an Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) estimator and the 2018 China Family Panel Studies data, this thesis addresses the selection bias associated with clean energy use and estimates unbiased treatment effects. The empirical results show that farmers using clean energy (liquid gas, natural gas, methane, solar energy, or electricity) as the primary cooking fuel report improved health, a lower probability of physical discomfort, and higher fitness expenditures than non-users. Clean energy use does not significantly affect self-reported health, the likelihood of having bronchitis and asthma, or medical spending. The estimates of the propensity score matching model verify the robustness of the results estimated by the IPWRA estimator. The disaggregated analyses reveal that male clean energy users were more likely to report improved health conditions, whereas female clean energy users were less likely to report discomfort during the reference year. Besides, households in income tertile 1 were more likely to report improved health, whereas their counterparts in income tertile 2 were less likely to feel uncomfortable. Households in income Tertile 3 were associated with a high level of fitness expenditure. The results of the theses also show that farmers’ decisions to use clean energy are positively associated with their educational level, household income, whether they rent farmland, and their happiness levels but are negatively related to their age, family size, whether they own real estate, and the ratio of elders in their household. The findings of this thesis emphasise the importance of promoting rural energy transition to improve social health outcomes.Publication Embargo The relationship between team structure and technological advancement in Formula One : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Commerce and Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Thomas, Anisha AndrewFormula One is renowned for its global reach, technological advancements, and the skill required to compete at the highest level. While the sport has historically been associated with innovation and the evolution of technology, there is a growing concern that Formula One has become more conservative and risk-averse in recent years, with regulations limiting true innovation. Additionally, financial pressures have shifted the focus towards incremental evolution rather than groundbreaking innovations, leading to a lack of diversity in engine manufacturers and a concentration of power among a few dominant teams. This thesis aims to investigate the role of team structure in determining the level of technological innovation or evolution pursued by Formula One teams. It explores the hypothesis that Entrepreneurial teams are more likely to drive Innovation, while corporate teams tend to focus on evolutionary changes within the sport. By analysing secondary data and conducting statistical analysis, the study examines the historical progression of Formula One, ownership structures within the sport, and the evaluation of technological development encompassing both innovation and evolution. The analysis of the data reveals that radical innovations in Formula One were predominantly driven by Entrepreneurial teams in the early years of the sport. However, as corporate participation increased, revolutionary innovation diminished over time. This contradicts the conventional theory that suggests larger firms with greater capital investments are more successful. Corporate interests, risk aversion, cost control, and profitability concerns have led to stringent rules and regulations that restrict teams' ability to innovate. To reclaim its status as the pinnacle of motorsports, Formula One must shift its focus towards nurturing and supporting entrepreneurial organisations that drive innovation. By fostering an environment that empowers these entities, the sport can rejuvenate its reputation as a breeding ground for groundbreaking technological advancements. While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between team structure and technological development in Formula One, further research using primary data collection methods and updated information is needed to explore additional linkages and relationships.Publication Open Access New Zealand attitudes towards the emerging sport of Esports: Content analysis of New Zealand public discourse on Esports : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Benden, Jenn.Globally, esports is no longer a new activity due to the expansion of esports tournaments, university scholarships, large sponsorships, and well-documented growth in popularity. Despite the global growth, esports and esports research in New Zealand is in a preliminary phase, with a national sporting body for esports only being approved in 2016. This research sought to develop an understanding of the prominent conversations, attitudes, and discourse in New Zealand through analysing publicly available articles and documents written in New Zealand and by New Zealand authors. A qualitative content analysis method (Bengtsson, 2016) was chosen, focusing on a sentence-by-sentence coding methodology. It was found that esports is yet to be accepted in public discourse, with articles repeatedly using justification language to defend esports against stereotypes and criticisms. Sport was conversely not criticised for these same objections, despite many of the criticisms being challenges sport also faces. Sport continues to be upheld in public discourse in New Zealand as an inherent ‘good’ regardless of potential negative outcomes for participants, while esports is not provided the same benefit of social acceptance, confirming again the Great Sport Myth (Coakley, 2015). Beyond comparisons to sport, it was found that esports faces similar criticisms to videogames, adding to the difficulty of esports finding full acceptance socially and politically. While the data gathering method was set to rule out irrelevant articles, it was not possible to fully separate videogame content from esports content. Future research could compare the videogame and esports discourses to determine whether the themes are the same, similar, or different. Other future research opportunities found include determining a clear picture of the demographics of New Zealand esports players and fans, as well as investigating the current and potential future locations of esports facilities in New Zealand.Publication Open Access Modification of soil biogeochemistry by plants during a restoration trajectory (Punakaiki, New Zealand) : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of International Nature Conservation at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Wang, YuxuanThe Punakaiki Coastal Restoration Project (PCRP) was carried out to restore native vegetation in a farmed pasture, aiming to establish a functioning sandplain. More than 30 species and >150,000 individual plants were transplanted from containers-grown specimens across the 70 ha site on a pragmatic and adhoc basis over several years. A restoration trajectory is also an ecological succession with temporal changes in species composition of plant communities. The present study focuses soil biogeochemistry in areas of the site where different plant species have been planted. Plants and soils were sampled from different locations at PCRP, and chemical properties of these samples were analysed using ICP-OES to determine macronutrient and trace elements. Olsen-P, mineral nitrogen, soil pH, and organic matter were also analysed. Olsen- P was determined using colorimetrically, while mineral nitrogen was determined using a triple-channel CHN analyser. The results showed that soil chemistry varied beneath different plant species, indicating that plants have different potentials to influence soil nutrient concentrations. Nutrient concentrations also varied with soil depth. Soil concentrations of NO3-N, Fe, Mn, Mo, Na, P, and S differed significantly under different species. Patterns of similarity and differences within the data were investigated. The study also found that a major factor causing the element difference under different plants was site variation. Soil samples were taken from the transects with different soil ages. Younger soil was more likely to contain more abundant trace and major elements and more biological activity, and soil pH was also impacted by soil age. Nutrient concentrations in soil and foliage were often either positively or negatively correlated. Whist primary minerals usually determine major nutrients and trace elements in the soil, differences can be due to passive or active absorptive channels in the soil and by physiological differences between plants. Rhizosphere processes can also alter soil chemistry. Coprosma robusta showed a passive response to salinity, suggesting it might be unable to regulate Na uptake, with a positive correlation between soil Na and foliage Na. By contrast, Coprosma propinqua appeared to actively control uptake of Al, Mg, Na, and Ni; it was the only species that showed a potential mechanism for exclusion of some elements, with a negative correlation of these elements between foliage and soil. The effect of rhizosphere processes on soil organic matter depends on plant species and soil properties, and microorganism activity and community play fundamental roles in driving organic carbon accumulation and decomposition. This study found that Olsen-P and soil organic matter tended to be higher in rhizosphere soil than in bulk soil, although the difference was not statistically significant. This may have been due to microbial activity differing between rhizospheric and bulk soil, probably associated with root morphology and exudates. An incubation experiment of litter of different plant species mixed with soil showed that plant litter could significantly change soil chemistry, and this varied between plant species. Plant litter reduced soil acidity and increased soil Olsen-P, but this differed in magnitude between plant species. Soil concentrations of NO3-N and NH4-N decreased after incubation; it is argued this might result from microorganism consumption of soil organic carbon. This research also aimed to evaluate finding of an earlier study on the role of seabird guano on soil nutrient concentrations and the accumulation of nutrients in New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax). The present study indicated that there was no significant difference in soil P levels under flax compared to other plants, contradicting the earlier findings of Zhong (2016). It was suggested that the variation in P levels were more likely to be due to soil age and location differences. Furthermore, P. tenax was found to have a significantly higher concentration of sodium than other plants, suggesting its ability to absorb substantial amounts of sodium from the soil. The findings also raise the question of whether P. tenax captures sodium in cuticular wax from marine spray due to its morphological features, which could be explored in further research. Overall, this study has shown that soil and plant nutrients differ between plant species and that plants have significant effects on soil chemistry. Plant and soil nutrients interact with litter quality and other environmental factors. It is concluded that understanding soil biogeochemistry has a role to play in ecological restoration, although this is currently poorly understood.Publication Open Access Cause for concern: Evaluating shade for UVR protection in Christchurch playgrounds : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Landscape Architecture at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Caves, LuciaObjectives: Shade cover in parks, particularly park playgrounds, are valuable landscape settings for reducing over-exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR). UVR is emitted from the sun, with over-exposure linked long-term to skin cancer among other health issues. With the highest exposure time in early life stages, children and young adults are among some more at-risk populations. Parks must protect from direct UVR. Furthermore, the distribution and quality of parks tend to be distributed in favour of wealthier neighbourhoods across a parks network. This study aimed to determine whether shade was adequately and equitably provided in parks located within the highest and lowest socioeconomic (SES) neighbourhoods of Christchurch, New Zealand using accessibility as a factor informing park selection. Methods: Between April and December 2022, 63 Parks in Christchurch were audited using a mixed method of desktop modelling and site visits to establish the percentage of shade cover and the amount of direct UVR blocked in shaded areas. ArcGIS Pro was used to conduct spatial analysis informing park selection regarding park location, accessibility, and the presence of play equipment to refine the sample size. Desktop analysis using Vectorworks was undertaken to establish the quantity of shade cover in park activity zones, with site visits also conducted for each park to determine the quality of shade cover in park activity zones. Results: Many parks audited had inadequate shade cover to reduce UVR over-exposure risk. Only one park audited had built shade present and there was limited succession planting for shade noted during site visits. There were correlations noted between park size and shade cover, with smaller parks typically having more shade cover in playground areas. Furthermore, there were some significances observed between SES parks, and by park category. Shade quality was found to be related to the size of canopy cover. However, the quality of shade did not vary significantly between parks, or between SES areas. Conclusions: There is limited shade provision in Christchurch parks, that is, primarily, irrespective of SES status. This is cause for concern in relation to skin cancer prevention and ensuring healthy park environments for the public. The provision of shade in park settings should be prioritised and focus on areas within a park that attract the most use, such as playgrounds. Implications: Shade provision needs to be a primary objective for the future design and upgrade of parks and playgrounds in Christchurch. The issue of shade provision also needs to be considered at the planning and policy levels to help implement these improvements.Publication Open Access Te Whare Whakakotahi : Nuturing human potential with Aroha: A thesis submitted to partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Resources Studies at Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2002) Bishara, Isaac JamesMāori experience of service delivery, education programme development and resource allocation at Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University vary in degree across a continuum of negative to positive. The social milieu of dynamic tertiary institutional environments, local, national and global forces impacting how those institutions determine their delivery of service and prevalent Aotearoa/New Zealand issues regarding Māori access, retention and academic success in tertiary education shape the relationships and degree of authentic participation in tertiary activity for Māori students. Māori students of Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University have personal and collective choices to make in relation to their academic responsibilities/ response-abilities in context to these forces and impacts. The discourse of Māori access to participatory democracy as it relates to Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University binds takata whenua of this area to that institution. Māori student access to that discursive process remains marginal. Despite that discrepancy precedence for holistic community beyond the rhetoric of discourse abounds as example throughout the coevolutionary history /herstory of the whānau of Te Whare Whakakotahi and Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University over the last decade. The rhetoric of participatory democracy is transcended through the autonomous expression of tikaka Māori manifested in proactive processes of whakawhanaukataka via the conduit of Aroha ki te takata. Though issues of marginalisation, hegemony and dis-empowerment still impact Māori student welfare here at Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University, their commitment to practicing living the living practice of Tikaka Māori specific to their needs serves to inculcate and perpetuate self autonomous values that do not require the justification and affirmation of external forces. The result of this has been the continued support and perpetuation of community wide positivity experienced by people of multiple cultures, throughout the decade, nurturing trans-cultural relationships the implicit outcome of practicing tikaka Māori Illustrating the we-dentity potential of whānau as being able to encompass local, national and international dimensions highlights great opportunity for an integrated united community inclusive of takata whenua, academic staff, and students of diverse origins sharing dynamic personal gifts and abilities that have the potential to affect positive outcomes for authentic community beyond rhetoric. Though the whānau of Te Whare Whakakotahi have been successfully manifesting this potential over the last decade this vision is yet to be realised to its utmost degree by the stakeholders of Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University. Te Awhioraki has shown the way, the challenge remains for Te Whare Wānaka o Aoraki/Lincoln University to participate authentically in the future of Māori student and wider community evolution in the next millennium. How will you respond?Publication Embargo Microsclerotia production in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: A potential bioherbicide for Californian Thistle and Giant Buttercup : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Mills, JontyThe plant pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, was further investigated as a potential bioherbicide targeting the problematic weeds Cirsium arvense (Californian thistle) and Ranunculus acris (Giant buttercup). Previous research has found that S. sclerotiorum can be effective at controlling both weeds with bioherbicide work primarily focused on solid substrate production of fungal mycelium, which has proven cost-prohibitive to scale up. The primary objective of this research was to investigate whether S. sclerotiorum could produce microsclerotia (MS) in liquid fermentation. Liquid fermentation is more cost-effective and scalable than solid substrate production. MS are small and resilient fungal propagules with characteristics such as desiccant tolerance and shelf stability, that make them attractive as propagules to be used as an active ingredient for a bioherbicide. Although MS production has been demonstrated for other species of fungi, it has not previously been reported for S. sclerotiorum. The suitability of MS incorporated into a S. sclerotiorum bioherbicide formulation was additionally assessed. Six S. sclerotiorum isolates (S36, S37, GGB1, GGB2, G57 and G64) were screened for their suitability for future bioherbicide development. The growth of the isolates was compared under a range of illumination (12 hr photoperiod or 24 hr darkness) and temperature (15 °C, 20 °C and 25 °C) conditions. Their pathogenicity on excised leaves of C. arvense (provenances G20 and G27) and R. acris (haplotypes A, A2, G and J) was compared. GGB2 was found to be the fastest growing isolate and was one of the most pathogenic isolates on both host species. This isolate is a potential candidate for future research. Seven liquid media with varying compositions were screened for their ability to induce MS formation with S. sclerotiorum isolate S36. A single media was identified that resulted in MS production, yielding 4.5 x 103 MS per mL after 14 days of fermentation at 300 rpm. Bioassays using formulations of these MS as inoculum on excised leaves of C. arvense and R. acris initially showed promising results. MS inoculum caused lesions on both species covering a large proportion of the leaf area and resulted in lesions significantly larger than those from a sclerotia inoculum (P < 0.001). Replications of the bioassay resulted in no lesions with the MS formulations, which led to further investigation of the formulation and drying process. The survival of the MS at each step of the formulation process was examined. The survival of the structures decreased dramatically when dried to below 30% moisture. Adjusting the fermentation time and carrier used did not improve MS viability after the drying step. Microscopy of the MS ultrastructure indicates that the drying process may be causing damage to the hyphal cell membranes, resulting in lysis of the cell and potentially causing low viability. Production of S. sclerotiorum MS has been demonstrated for the first time. Despite the inconsistency of MS of S. sclerotiorum to survive drying and cause infection, MS remain a promising propagule for a future bioherbicide. Optimization of the fermentation and formulation should be the focus of future work. If reliable production of desiccant tolerant MS of S. sclerotiorum can be achieved, this would present an opportunity to enable the sustainable management of C. arvense and R. acris.Publication Open Access How can multicultural communities be engaged effectively in the process of setting long-term visions for freshwater? : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Water Resource Management at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Zhao, ChuThe National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management 2020 (NPS-FM) introduced Te Mana o te Wai (loosely translated as the vital importance of water), which requires councils to engage with communities and tangata whenua in any decision-making processes relating to water. It is important for local authorities such as Environment Canterbury (ECan) to engage with a diversity of cultures. According to census data, people of Asian ethnicity make up about 15% of the total New Zealand population, of which the ethnic Chinese group makes up the largest proportion. Previous research indicates that ethnic Chinese people in Christchurch are willing to be involved in environmental planning, but that there are barriers to their participation, such as lack of local environmental and political knowledge. This study aims to: (1) explore the meaning of Te Mana o te Wai to ethnic Chinese living in Christchurch; (2) identify and evaluate effective ways of engaging with ethnic Chinese in developing long-term visions for freshwater management; and (3) review existing documents for best-practice engagement with the ethnic Chinese group. Data was collected during July and August 2022. The researcher collected 151 anonymous survey responses (67 responses from the in-person approach and 84 responses collected online through social media channels). Ten semi-structured interviews were also conducted, comprising five participants from central and local government and five local Chinese community leaders. This study’s findings suggest that most Chinese had not heard of Te Mana o te Wai, but that most wanted to participate in decision-making processes around environmental planning or water management. This study highlights some barriers not previously identified in research, such as cultural differences and lack of capability and capacity for local authorities. The study concludes with recommendations to help the regional council improve ethnic Chinese participation in decision-making processes in order to achieve more inclusivity and collaboration with diverse ethnic groups in New Zealand.Publication Open Access Responses of perennial ryegrass populations to grazing method and endophytic relationships : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Thomas, EveNew Zealand dairy farmers rely primarily on swards based on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.) for feeding dairy cows. The direct-grazed, low-cost production system that these pastures enable provides the New Zealand dairy industry with a competitive advantage for products in the international market. As a result, the industry contributes significantly to New Zealand’s export earnings and national gross domestic product. However, farmers in the upper North Island have expressed concern about the poor productivity of their perennial ryegrass pastures beyond three years post-sowing and have linked this to more-frequent occurrence of drier and warmer conditions for pasture growth during summer and autumn. Recent research has shown that even pastures sown with new ryegrass cultivars inoculated with the most-advanced endophyte strains cannot sustain high productivity under the severe climatic conditions and increased insect pest burdens being experienced in many parts of the Waikato, Bay of Plenty and Northland. In some cases, this is due to the death of ryegrass plants and ingress of lower-producing weed species, while in other cases reasonable ryegrass plant density can be sustained, but growth rates are poor. There is limited information on the plant population and phenological factors associated with these changes, making it difficult for farmers, agronomists and plant breeders to develop effective solutions. The study described in this thesis investigated the differences in phenotypic trait expression of perennial ryegrass plants removed from 10-year old pastures grazed by dairy cows in the Waikato (‘survivor’ plants) versus plants grown from the original seed lines that were used to sow the pastures and had, therefore, not been subject to any environmental selection pressure (‘reference’ plants). The study aimed to help inform future plant breeding efforts to utilise phenotypic changes and reselect for traits that are associated with better plant survival. Three populations were compared: reference plants; survivors from pastures rotationally grazed by dairy cows since they were established in autumn 2011 (‘control’); and survivors from pastures managed as per the control treatment, but where grazing was deferred for ~ 120 days from mid spring to mid-summer to promote new seedling recruitment two years before plants were collected from the field (‘deferred’). Four perennial ryegrass cultivars were included in the design: Nui standard endophyte (SE); Commando AR37, a mid-season heading diploid; Alto AR37 a late season heading diploid; and Halo AR37 a very late heading tetraploid. Thus, 12 populations were compared. Initially, there were 60 plants per population giving a total of 720 plants which were grown individually in pots at Lincoln University. The first phase was a pilot study during the early acclimatisation period where progress towards equalisation of plant growth across the populations was tracked. Biomass accumulation and reproductive development were assessed from late February to late April. Substantial flowering activity was recorded in the control and deferred populations for all cultivars, but not in the reference population, illustrating the expected carry-over effects related to differences in plant source (clonal fragments from the field versus seed-derived for the reference population). Biomass accumulation was initially lower in the reference population but there were no differences between populations by day 105 when plants had tillered-out to a similar degree. All plants were then analysed for the presence or absence of endophyte and, where endophyte was present, its genetic identity (strain). Plants with no endophyte, or with an endophyte strain that was not AR37 (or not SE, for Nui), were discarded and plant numbers rebalanced to 30 plants per population that were confirmed as ‘true-to-type’ for the original host genotype – endophyte strain combination sown in 2011. Four further populations of control plants (one for each cultivar; total 240 plants) were available for endophyte analysis from a site in Canterbury where the same experimental design and seed lines as used in the Waikato was established at the same time. The grazing deferral treatment was not implemented at this site. For Waikato, the percentage of plants that were true-to-type was significantly higher in the reference population (82%) than the control and deferred populations (69-71%). Overall, Commando had significantly lower percentage true-to-type than the other cultivars (60% versus 78-82%), with a high presence of standard endophyte (22%) indicating contamination by volunteer ryegrass plants and poorer persistence of the original population. For the Canterbury control populations, mean true-to-type percentages were 85-98% across the four cultivars, i.e. generally higher than for the original seed lines. The second phase was a detailed phenological study, where plant, leaf and tiller characteristics were measured on the true-to-type plants only, and flowering observations were conducted for 70 days starting in mid-October. Phenotypic measurements included: leaf weight, length, width, area, specific leaf area and thickness; pseudostem weight, length and width; and visual scores of rust, tillering and growth habit. Control plants had significantly lower leaf dry weight, shorter leaves and smaller lamina area than the reference plants, with no interaction between population source and cultivar. Deferred populations did not differ from reference populations in these traits, indicating grazing deferral ‘re- set’ the plant phenotype back from the control state to its original state, at least for the first 18 months after deferral. There were no differences between populations in pseudostem characteristics, growth habit or tiller density scores, but reference populations showed a trend towards higher incidence of rust compared with control and deferred. A significant shift toward later flowering in the control population compared with the reference population was found for Nui, Commando and Alto, but not for Halo. In summary, differentiation toward smaller leaves, greater disease resistance, and later flowering was observed after nearly ten years under grazing in the Waikato populations when potential contaminants were excluded and any effects due to endophyte presence/absence or variant strains were removed. It appears that the shift towards longer leaves can be reversed by deferring grazing to allow recruitment of new seedlings into the population. In contrast, shifts in rust resistance and flowering in control populations were not reversed as a result of spring/summer grazing deferral. Further investigation of the genetic factors controlling the reversibility of leaf traits could help identify breeding objectives for maintaining the persistence of yield advantages in ryegrass pastures. Future studies should also examine possible long-term benefits of this management practice to bring about phenotypic change for yield improvements and consider the duration of possible carry-over effects.Publication Open Access The taxonomy, systematics and ecology of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) inhabiting the South Island rocky alpine zone : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Long, RobinThe salticid (jumping) spider family is among the most heavily researched groups of invertebrates globally. Nevertheless, in Aotearoa New Zealand the vast majority of species have never been studied. While it is estimated there are approximately 200 endemic salticids found across the country, only around 50 have been described, and fewer than 10 are reliably identifiable. Of those inhabiting the alpine zone, none can be identified to genus or species, although it is widely recognised that these taxa exist. To address this, a search was conducted for Salticidae at 21 rocky alpine sites throughout the South Island to obtain a representative selection of specimens across their range. Through morphological examination and phylogenetic analysis of COI sequence data, 12 new alpine species were identified. Together these taxa comprise a new genus within the salticid family. Further phylogenetic analysis of combined COI and actin 5C datasets placed the new genus within the Australasian Astioida clade, and likely within the Viciriini tribe. Using the 170 specimens collected during this fieldwork, plus some from existing collections, formal descriptions are provided for the new genus, here named Ourea gen. nov., and 12 new species. These spiders include some of the largest salticids known from New Zealand, and are remarkably well camouflaged on the rock substrates they inhabit. The genus is common and widespread throughout the South Island, with at least one species found at every rocky alpine locality visited in the study. In addition to the alpine species described here, the genus includes several lower-altitude taxa which remain to be described, and probably many more from throughout the country. It is also likely that three Subantarctic species, currently misplaced in the genus Clynotis (Simon 1901), and a widespread mainland species, Trite pollardi (Patoleta & Zabka 2017), would be better placed in this genus. Field observations regarding the natural history of Ourea gen. nov. incuding distribution, life cycle, reproduction, diet and threats were recorded. Although most of the species described here were found exclusively in the alpine zone, one occurred in rocky habitats from sea level to above 1500 m. Parasitism by pompilid wasps was observed in two taxa. Intraspecific behaviour in the wild was unusual in that six of the species were found living closely together in conspecific, and even congeneric, groups. Despite this, cannibalism was also observed. Intraspecific display behaviour, studied in a laboratory setting, is described for a subset of four species. Displays were of similar complexity compared to other Salticidae.Publication Open Access Puccinia punctiformis as a biocontrol agent for Cirsium arvense: effect of biotic and abiotic factors on success of infection : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science at Lincoln University(Lincoln University, 2023) Kentjens, Wendy Maria HenricaCalifornian thistle (Cirsium arvense L. (Scop.)) is a weed in pastures and cropping systems. The fungal biocontrol agent Puccinia punctiformis (F. Strauss) Röhl. performs inconsistently on C. arvense. P. punctiformis establishment and control of C. arvense may be attributable to differing plant endophytic populations in various environments. Therefore, a study on endophytic populations within leaf, stem, and root tissue of C. arvense was undertaken with seasonal dynamics and location considered. Ninety-one endophytic genera, of which 68 not previously known to be associated with C. arvense, were ascertained in this study by culturing methods. To determine the identity of these cultures, PCR with fungal specific primers was performed, followed by sequencing and identification of the PCR products. Endophytic communities of stems and leaves of C. arvense are dynamic, with changes in community composition occurring over seasons. In autumn, a significant increase in leaf endophytic diversity occurred, which may be affected by C. arvense shoots commencing die-off. Root endophytic communities were stable, with no significant changes in endophytic community composition nor diversity occurring. Leaf endophytic diversity was comparable between sites, but community composition differed. This study shows that endophytic communities are dynamic being season, site, and tissue dependent. To enable quantification of P. punctiformis in samples, several comparisons were undertaken to finetune the qPCR assay and determine its robustness. Results were categorised in the following concentration bands: P. punctiformis absent; low concentration present (<5 ng/µL); medium concentration present (5-100 ng/µL); high concentration present (>100 ng/µL). An efficiency correction would be applied to add to the quality of results obtained. To determine the effect of endophytes on P. punctiformis urediniospores infection, two genotypes of C. arvense were grown in either in a controlled environment glasshouse, as potted plants in a potting mix media, or under natural, field conditions in soil. Establishment of P. punctiformis and endophytic communities were compared between genotypes (G27 and F1) and growing conditions (glasshouse and field) by visual estimation as well as quantitative PCR for the presence of P. punctiformis. The number of endophytic genera as well as community composition were determined prior to trial commencement and on completion. Six weeks post-inoculation, G27 plants had higher levels of disease expression in the field compared to plants of the same genotype in the glasshouse (70% vs 20%, 23 vs 10 ng/µL, respectively; P<0.001). Whereas, F1 genotype showed greater infection severity under glasshouse conditions than in the field (46% vs 45%, 75 vs 1 ng/µL, respectively; P<0.001). Endophyte community composition was compared between least and most infected leaves of these plants. In a second study, endophytic populations were compared in symptomatic and asymptomatic shoots from a field with systemic rust infection. From these studies, some genera which may enhance P. punctiformis infection were identified. These included: Bipolaris, Curvularia, Gliocladiopsis, Leptosphaeria, Phoma, Phaebotryosphaeria, Septoria, and Septoriella. To determine the optimal urediniospores concentration and the effect of abiotic factors on P. punctiformis urediniospores infection, four duplicate pot trials were performed. Spore concentrations ranging from 0.1-0.4 mg/mL effectively established P. punctiformis infection. A selection of positively charged compounds (chitosan, and four nitrogen fertilisers) were trialled, with none enhancing P. punctiformis infection. Despite this study not identifying a method to enhance P. punctiformis infection, it has contributed to the knowledge on C. arvense endophytes. Further research could explore if the genera found in highly infected leaves of C. arvense could be used to enhance P. punctiformis infection.