Towards a holistic understanding of rural livelihood systems: The case of the Bine, Western Province, Papua New Guinea

Abstract

This exploratory village-level case study sought to gain in-depth insights and a holistic understanding into the livelihood system of the rural Bine community in Papua New Guinea. This involved the identification of the components and mechanics of the livelihood system unique to the case study area, their interconnectedness and the contexts in which they exist, to discover, describe and explain changes to the livelihood system and reasons why, how villagers live, what enables them to survive daily amidst adversity, how they respond to pressures on their livelihoods, and what drives their livelihoods decisions and choices.

This study is predominantly qualitative, using primary data collected from three remote villages during two field visits in 2007 and 2008 aimed at capturing diversity. Secondary data sources were also utilized. Whilst the constructivist-interpretivist research paradigm that is amenable to soft systems thinking was the overarching research paradigm, elements of grounded theory and phenomenology formed the methodological basis of this study. A plethora of sustainable livelihoods frameworks and a composite of complementary research frameworks, multi-disciplinary schools of thought, theories, models and an assortment of data collection and analyses methods were employed.

The livelihood system of the Bine comprises of livelihood strategies, assets and resources; the decision environment; aspirations; structures, processes, policies, institutions, organizations; and the vulnerability context. Of these, livelihood strategies are the main determinant of Bine survival. Semi-subsistence agriculture, in the form of extensive polycultural forest cultivation and intensive savannah monoculture, was and is the dominant livelihood strategy of the Bine. The other livelihood strategies undertaken by the Bine are foraging; hunting; fishing; exploitation of sago and coconuts; mat and basket weaving, broom making, marijuana cultivation, sale of labour, prostitution, marketing activities and trade with Torres Strait Islanders of Australia. The asset and resource base of the Bine livelihood system comprises the natural environment (i.e. land, forests, savannah grasslands, rivers, creeks, swamps, and the sea); physical assets; and human, social, financial, political and cultural assets and resources. The Bine make decisions regarding livelihood strategies in the context of the nuclear household. The primary aim for the Bine engaging in livelihood strategies is survival followed by cash. Both internal and external structures, processes, institutions and organizations influence decisions regarding livelihood strategies. The impact of policies alien to the Bine is also evident. The vulnerability context of the Bine is mainly natural and human. The natural include floods, droughts, change in climate and weather patterns, seasons, the natural resource base, and lack of physical infrastructure while the human include sorcery, acculturation and daily stress situations such as social obligations.

The livelihood system of the Bine and the village economy has been in transition. The reasons and factors responsible for the transition and their influences are varied and manifest in various forms. They include the introduction of money and the overarching and dominant external economic, political and social systems, structures, institutions, processes and policies that have been beyond the control of the villagers. Internal systems, structures, institutions, and processes have also induced change. Deliberate and conscious action on the part of villagers in response to challenges, opportunities, changes and necessity have also contributed to changes in the livelihood system.

Although in transition, the basis for Bine social existence over generations has been the traditional social structures, processes, relationships, and networks centred on a totemic clan system. The system is bound and cemented by kinship and founded on the principles of trust, reciprocity, distribution and exchange relations within and between families. The livelihood system of the Bine has been a continuous process of adaptation to environmental and material conditions as evidenced by the Bine undertaking a range of livelihood strategies.

The study findings both confirm and contradict the various schools of thought, theories and models. There is no one school of thought, theory or model that explains all aspects of the livelihood system of the Bine. The Bine, let alone their livelihood system, have never been subject to empirical investigation so this study fills this void. This study is also the first of its kind to conduct a meticulous review of the plethora of sustainable livelihood frameworks. Moreover, this study was also an opportunity to gain in-depth insights and understanding into changes to rural livelihood systems in a specific context to allow spatial comparisons with similar studies elsewhere.