Nurturing water citizenship to create sustainable communities : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University

Abstract

Depletion of groundwater in India, is one of the most pressing challenges related to freshwater security. Besides agriculture, a large proportion of unregulated use of groundwater occurs in informal settlements where basic water supplies and infrastructure is often lacking. While a shift from river water to groundwater to bottled water has occurred, the next step is towards rainwater harvesting (RWH). This has occurred at policy level but its implementation on the ground has been limited as these settlements are heavily populated, spatially constrained and have complex land tenure issues. A study was undertaken on an initiative in an informal settlement in Basai Khurd, Agra, India, where Centre for Urban and Regional Excellence (CURE), a non-governmental organisation (NGO), partnered with one local neighbourhood within the settlement and implemented a RWH tank to reduce their dependence on groundwater. Householder interviews (n=35) were used to identify a diversity of water practices employed by men, women and children in their daily lives to overcome challenges of poor water quality, scarcity and cost. Different categories of household water practices emerged in Basai Khurd that were grouped into ‘happy’, ‘satisfied’, ‘coping’ and ‘suffering’ based on their degree of agency in being able to choose their water sources and on shifting identities that enabled them to belong to like-minded user groups. This suggests that transitioning from one water source to another is not only dependent on available infrastructure but also requires collaborative social practices that encourage and support ways of changing household routines. Rainwater harvesting, as instigated by CURE, can have a positive impact on a local neighbourhood. However, households without RWH are finding alternate ways to cope with local water challenges in informal settlements. A new concept of water citizenship is proposed for water transitioning based on diversifying agency and shifting identities of water practices at household, neighbourhood and city levels. This concept offers an approach for local communities within informal settlements that are vulnerable and need initiatives that can transition them towards a self-sufficient way of life with better quality of water. This work has implications for city planners, architects and NGOs in improving the lives of those living in informal settlements with water scarcity and poor water quality. Future research is needed into methods for alleviating the most vulnerable and ‘suffering’ households in informal settlements.