Lifecycle analysis and comparison of different vehicle technologies in the New Zealand context: Policy and planning implications : A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Planning at Lincoln University

Abstract

Over 90% of personal travel in New Zealand is carried out by private vehicles (MoT, 2024b). As a result of this everyday reliance upon private vehicle transit, nationwide planning and policy initiatives in favour of electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEs) and a way to accelerate the fulfilment of New Zealand’s emissions reduction targets and climate goals. However, these policies are not consistent or long term, facing disestablishment, complete reformation or even replacement. This unsteady course of policy gives rise to the need for consistent, facts-based vehicular incentivisation and legislation that has the opportunity to be long-standing and thereby produce larger, more widespread environment gains.. A lifecycle analysis approach provides a way to uncover this information and address this issue. Effects generated from all phases of a vehicle lifecycle, not just simply operations-based emissions, are critical to the effects generated on the environment, and are yet commonly omitted in current policy and fleet regulations. New Zealand is in need of a nationwide, legislative, solidified understanding as to what vehicle type is the best for emissions reduction through private vehicle ownership and operation, alongside consistent policy and planning mechanisms to reflect this direction. This research investigation utilises a two-step methodology approach. Results pertaining to the overall total lifecycle emissions contributions as well as emissions associated with each phase of the vehicle lifecycle were calculated through the usage of an established LCA tool. The results generated are then manually refined based on New Zealand-specific data, including average vehicle lifetime distance, purchased energy emissions factors, and electricity consumption rate or EV ‘fuel economy’ to make these results bespoke to the New Zealand context. Findings include the determination of electric vehicles as the best option of light vehicle for emissions reduction within New Zealand. From a total lifecycle emissions perspective, EVs of all sizes and battery range capacities, specifically smaller-sized EVs, prove to contribute less emissions than that of any corresponding ICE. Moreover, replacing the battery in these smaller-sized EVs when required will further enhance the emissions-efficiency by not only extending the lifecycle but also through choosing to add a minimal number of additional emissions as an alternative to opting for manufacture and procurement of an entirely new vehicle unit. In addition, the optimal two-car household combination for the lowest total life cycle emissions contributions would be that of either one small EV that travels frequently accompanied by one large EV that travels only occasionally, or one small EV that travels frequently accompanied by one large ICE that travels only occasionally. Core recommendations to New Zealand vehicular planning and policy are (1) focused incentivization of smaller-sized EVs, (2) increased prioritised subsidy rewards to those with high mileage vehicles, and (3) the inclusion of EV battery replacement within incentivization policies.