Climatic and design tipping points in agrivoltaic crop production systems. A meta-analysis

Abstract

Amidst global climate change, increasing food demand, and land-use competition between agriculture and energy production, agrivoltaic systems are emerging as a potential solution energy. However, the spatial heterogeneity of existing physical research infrastructure limits the generalizability of plant growth and growth conditions findings across diverse climate zones. This study aims to address this gap by conducting a comprehensive meta-analysis across 20 countries. Unlike previous work, our approach integrates key variables, including photovoltaic system design parameters, crop yield responses, and microclimate changes, into a unified analytical framework. It further maps the empirical evidence onto a global climate context. The analysis reveals several novel insights. First, distinct design patterns were observed in photovoltaic system deployment: small-scale installations (1000m²) are often associated with increased mounting heights (3.05 m vs. 2.57 m), which alters ground-level conditions. At the same time, photovoltaic installation characteristics (e.g., panel height and array size) also vary across different climate zones, reflecting differences in installation objectives (e.g., energy optimization vs. experimental). Second, we identified a previously undocumented “tipping point” in system size (~2 ha), beyond which microclimate temperature effects reverse. Third, crop yield responses under shading vary by crop physiology and climatic zone; for example, lettuce showed tolerance to increased shading under certain environmental conditions. In addition, we suggest that a potential trade-off point may exist between crop yield and photovoltaic shading, which could enable a balance between maintaining agricultural productivity and achieving effective energy generation. These findings demonstrate that the performance of agrivoltaic systems is highly climate- and crop-dependent. Therefore, region-specific and plant-centered design principles should be central to future agrivoltaic innovations and policy frameworks. By presenting the first global climate–integrated map of agrivoltaic study locations, this work provides a foundational evidence base to guide climate-smart agrivoltaic planning and implementation.